Intensity of urinary schistosomiasis on gender-aged group of primary schools children in Sokoto South and Kware Area, Sokoto State, Nigeria

Mudassiru Dalhat , Abdulhadi Bawa Jibia , Dahiru Mohammed and Sama'ila Abdullahi

Abstract
Study was conducted to determine the prevalence of urinary schistosomiasis among school children in three selected primary schools around Sokoto Metropolis, Nigeria. A total of 375 samples of urine examined for the eggs of Schistosoma haematobium and S. mansoni using standard filtration technique. The prevalence and parasite load of S. haematobium were 60.80% and 43.85/10 mL of urine. The prevalence varied among schools, age of children, gender and water contact. The highest prevalence of 75.20% was recorded in Basansan Model Primary School. Age group 9-12 years had the highest (71.42%) prevalence of infection. Males with the prevalence of 79.57% were more infected than females with prevalence of 29.28%. Based on occupation and water contact activities, the result showed that children of farmers had the highest prevalence of 71.50% and 84.87%, children whose source of drinking water is from Dam, had the highest prevalence of 75.24%. The study area is endemic for urinary schistosomiasis with high significant variation (P < 0.01) between the prevalence of the infections in almost all the primary schools. Health Education Campaign, treatment of infected individuals, provision of safe water for domestic uses and control of snails' vector should be encouraged.

Keywords
Prevalence; Schistosomiasis; Intensity; Children; Urine analysis; Gender.

DOI
10.21472/bjbs.040718

Full text
PDF

References
Abdel-Wahab, M. F.; Gomal, E.; Imam, R.; Shaker, N.; Emam, M.; Muhammad, I.; El Boracy, Y. S.; Thomas, G. The epidemiology of schistosomiasis in Egypt. Fayoum Governorate. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, v. 62, No. 2, p. 55-64, 2000.

Abiola A. O.; Nwogu, E. E.; Ibrahim, M. T.; Hassan, R. Effect of health education on knowledge, attitude and practices of personal hygiene among secondary school students in rural Sokoto, North West, Nigeria. Pub. Med., v. 22, No. 3, p.181-190, 2012.

Adamu, T.; Abubakar, U.; Galadima, M. The use of reagent strip and questionnaire in rapid assessment of urinary schistosomiasis. Journal of Tropical Biosciences, v. 1, No. 1, p. 133-140, 2001.

Adamu, T.; Abubakar, U. Preliminary studies on the local names, prevailing beliefs and treatment practices of some common parasitic disease in rural areas of Sokoto, Kebbi and Zamfara States, Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Parasitology, v. 24, p. 103-108, 2003.

Agi, P. I.; Okafor, E. J. The epidemiology of Schistosoma heamatobium in Odau community in the Niger Delta Area of Nigeria. Journal of Applied Science and Environmental Management, v. 9, No. 3, p. 37-43, 2005.

Akogun, O. B.; Obadiah, S. History of haematuria among school - aged children for rapid community diagnosis of Urinary Schistosomiasis. Nigerian Journal of Parasitology, v. 17, p. 11-15, 2000.

Babatunde, T. A.; Asaolu, S. O.; Sowemimo, O. A. Urinary schistoomiasis among pre-school and school aged children in two peri-urban communities in South West Nigeria. Journal of Parasitology and Vector Biology, v. 5, No. 7, p. 96-101, 2013.

Bello, Y. M.; Adamu, T.; Abubakar, U.; Muhammad, A. A. Urinary Schistosomiasis in some villages around the Goronyo Dam, Sokoto State, Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Parasitology, v. 24, p. 109-114, 2003.

Blair, D. M. Bilharziasis survey in British West and East, Africa, New Zeland and Rhodesia. WHO Bulletin, v. 15, p. 202-207, 2011.

CDC. Schistosomiasis. Division of Parasites Diseases. 2008. Available from: <http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dpd/parasites/schistosomiasis/factsht_schistosomiasis.htm>. Accessed on: Nov. 27, 2016.

Chitsulo, L.; Engels, D.; Montresor, A.; Savoili, L. The globle schistosomiasis and its control. Acta Tropica, v. 77, No. 1, p. 41-51, 2000.

Despommier, G. H. K. Parasitic diseases. 5. ed. New York: Apple Trees productions L.L.C.N.Y., 2010.

Ekejindu, I. M.; Ekejindu, G. O. C; Andy, A. Schistosoma heamatobium infection and nutritional status of residents in Azi-anam, a riverine area of Anambara State, South-Eastern Nigeria. The Nigerian Journal of Parasitology, v. 23, p. 133-138, 2002.

Fenwick, A. The global burden of neglected tropical diseases. Public Health, v. 126, No. 3, p. 233-236, 2012. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2011.11.015

Foster R. Schistosomiasis in irrigated Estate of East Africa. Effect of Hygiene, v. 170, p. 185-195, 2006.

Grist, N. R.; Darrel, O. H.; Walker, E.; William, G. R. Diseases of infection: an illustrated textbook. London: Oxford University Press, 1998.

Gryseels, B.; Polman, K.; Clerinx, J.; Kestens, L. Human schistosomiasis. Lancet, v. 368, p. 1106-1118, 2006. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69440-3

King, C. H.; Olbrych, S. K.; Soon, M.; Singer, M. E.; Carter, J.; Colley, D. G. Utility of repeated praziquantel dosing in the treatment of schistosomiasis in high risk communities in Africa: a systematic review. Plos Negl. Trop. Dis., v. 5, p. 1329, 2011.

Ladan, M. U.; Abubakar, U.; Abubakar, K.; Bunza, M. D. A.; Nasiru, M.; Ladan, M. J. Gender and age - specific prevalence of urinary schistosomiasis in selected villages near a Dam site in Gusau Local Government Area. Zamfara State, Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Parasitology, v. 32, p. 57, 2013.

Ladan, M. U.; Abubakar, U.; Abdullah, K.; Bunza, M. D. A.; Ladan, M. J.; Adamu, T. Urinary schistosomiasis in selected villages around Gusau Dam Site, Zamfara State, Nigeria. Niger J. Basic Appl. Sci., v. 20, p. 189-194, 2012.

Lozano, R; Naghavi, M.; Foreman, K.; Lim, S.; Shibuya, K.; Aboyans, V.; Abraham, J.; Adair, T.; Aggarwal, R.; Ahn, S. Y.; Alvarado, M.; Anderson, H. R.; Anderson, L. M.; Andrews, K. G.; Atkinson, C.; Baddour, L. M.; Barker-Collo, S.; Bartels, D. H.; Bell, M. L.; Benjamin, E. J.; Bennett, D.; Bhalla, K.; Bikbov, B.; Bin Abdulhak, A.; Birbeck, G.; Blyth, F.; Bolliger, I.; Boufous, S.; Bucello, C.; Burch, M.; Burney, P.; Carapetis, J.; Chen, H.; Chou, D.; Chugh, S. S.; Coffeng, L. E.; Colan, S. D.; Colquhoun, S.; Colson, K. E.; Condon, J.; Connor, M. D.; Cooper, L. T.; Corriere, M.; Cortinovis, M.; de Vaccaro, K. C.; Couser, W.; Cowie, B. C.; Criqui, M. H.; Cross, M.; Dabhadkar, K. C.; Dahodwala, N.; De Leo, D.; Degenhardt, L.; Delossantos, A.; Denenberg, J.; Des Jarlais, D. C.; Dharmaratne, S. D.; Dorsey, E. R.; Driscoll, T.; Duber, H.; Ebel, B.; Erwin, P. J.; Espindola, P.; Ezzati, M.; Feigin, V.; Flaxman, A. D.; Forouzanfar, M. H.; Fowkes, F. G.; Franklin, R.; Fransen, M.; Freeman, M. K.; Gabriel, S. E.; Gakidou, E.; Gaspari, F.; Gillum, R. F.; Gonzalez-Medina, D.; Halasa, Y. A.; Haring, D.; Harrison, J. E.; Havmoeller, R.; Hay, R. J.; Hoen, B.; Hotez, P. J.; Hoy, D.; Jacobsen, K. H.; James, S. L.; Jasrasaria, R.; Jayaraman, S.; Johns, N.; Karthikeyan, G.; Kassebaum, N.; Keren, A.; Khoo, J. P.; Knowlton, L. M.; Kobusingye, O.; Koranteng, A.; Krishnamurthi, R.; Lipnick, M.; Lipshultz, S. E.; Ohno, S. L.; Mabweijano, J.; MacIntyre, M. F.; Mallinger, L.; March, L.; Marks, G. B.; Marks, R.; Matsumori, A.; Matzopoulos, R.; Mayosi, B. M.; McAnulty, J. H.; McDermott, M. M.; McGrath, J.; Mensah, G. A.; Merriman, T. R.; Michaud, C.; Miller, M.; Miller, T. R.; Mock, C.; Mocumbi, A. O.; Mokdad, A. A.; Moran, A.; Mulholland, K.; Nair, M. N.; Naldi, L.; Narayan, K. M.; Nasseri, K.; Norman, P.; O'Donnell, M.; Omer, S. B.; Ortblad, K.; Osborne, R.; Ozgediz, D.; Pahari, B.; Pandian, J. D.; Rivero, A. P.; Padilla, R. P.; Perez-Ruiz, F.; Perico, N.; Phillips, D.; Pierce, K.; Pope, C. A. 3rd; Porrini, E.; Pourmalek, F.; Raju, M.; Ranganathan, D.; Rehm, J. T.; Rein, D. B.; Remuzzi, G.; Rivara, F. P.; Roberts, T.; De León, F. R.; Rosenfeld, L. C.; Rushton, L.; Sacco, R. L.; Salomon, J. A.; Sampson, U.; Sanman, E.; Schwebel, D. C.; Segui-Gomez, M.; Shepard, D. S.; Singh, D.; Singleton, J.; Sliwa, K.; Smith, E.; Steer, A.; Taylor, J. A.; Thomas, B.; Tleyjeh, I. M.; Towbin, J. A.; Truelsen, T.; Undurraga, E. A.; Venketasubramanian, N.; Vijayakumar, L.; Vos, T.; Wagner, G. R.; Wang, M.; Wang, W.; Watt, K.; Weinstock, M. A.; Weintraub, R.; Wilkinson, J. D.; Woolf, A. D.; Wulf, S.; Yeh, P. H.; Yip, P.; Zabetian, A.; Zheng, Z. J.; Lopez, A. D.; Murray, C. J.; AlMazroa, M. A.; Memish, Z. A. Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet, v. 380, No. 9859, p. 2095-2128, 2012. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61728-0

Mafiana, G. F.; Adesanya, O. O. Urinary Schistosomiasis in Ilewo-Orite, Ogun State, Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Parasitology, v. 15, p. 32-34, 1999.

Martyne, T. S; Essame, O.; Ratard, R. C. High risk behaviours and schistosomiasis infection in Kumba, South-West Province, Cameroon. Int. J. Environ. Res. Publ. Health, v. 4, p. 101-105, 2007.

Monday, L. E.; Francis, J. I.; Lamidi, B. T.; Mohammad, S. U. Investigating Urinary Schistosomiasis in Bali Town, Bali Local Government Area, Taraba State, Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Parasitology, v. 35, No. 1/2, p. 149-150, 2014.

Mostafa, M. H.; Sheweita, S. A.; O'Connor, P. J. Relationship between schistosomiasis and bladder cancer. Clin. Micrbiol., v. 12, p. 97-111, 1999.

Mutapi, F.; Takafira, M.; Natialia, G.; Willam, F. G.; Cecilia, F.; Nicholas, M.; Rick, M. M. Preferential lgG3 antibody responsiveness to a recombinant antigen dependent on age and parasite burden. BMC Infect Dis., 6: 96, 2006. https://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2334-6-96

Nkengazong, L.; Njiokou, F.; Asonganyi, T. Two years impact of single praziquantel treatment on urinary schistosomiasis in the Barombi Kotto focus, South West Cameroon. J. Parasitol. Vect. Biol., v. 5, p. 83-89, 2013.

Norberg, E. Communicable Diseases: a manual for health workers in Sub-Saharan Africa. Africa Medical and Research Foundation. 2004.

Ogboli, A. U.; Nock, I. H.; Abdulrahaman, E. M.; Ibrahim, N. D. G. Curative potential of the lead extracts of Eucalyptus citriodora Hook on experimental Schistosomiasis in Mice. Journal of Tropical Biosciences, v. 1, No. 1, p. 101-105, 2001.

Okwoli, A. Schistosoma haematobium infection among primary school children in Benue State, Nigeria. The Nigerian Journal of Parasitology, v. 14, p. 5, 1993.

Pukuma, M. S.; Musa, S. P. Prevalence of urinary schistosomiasis among residents of Waduku in Lamurde Local Government Area of Adamawa State Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Parasitology, v. 28, No. 2, p. 65-68, 2007.

Rubin, E.; Farber, L. J. Essential Pathology. New York: J. B. Lippincott, 1999.

Senghor, B.; Diallo, A.; Sylla, S.; Doucoure, S.; Ndiath, M. Gaayeb, L.; Djuikwo-Teukeng, F. F.; Bâ, C. T.; Sokhna, C. Prevalence and intensity of urinary schistosomiasis among school children in the District of Niakhar, Region of Fatick, Senegal. Parasites and Vectors, 7:5, 2014. https://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1756-3305-7-5

TDR. WHO/UNDP/WLD BNK. Schistosomiasis. WHO/UNDP/WLD BNK., 1996. (13th. Progress Report.).

Tierney, M. L.; Stephen, J. J.; Mcphec, J.; Maxine, A. P. Current medical diagnosis and treatment. 44. ed. New York: McGraw Hill, 2005.

Topographic sheet. Alied Surveryors, Surulere, Lagos. Sokoto, South-west, topographic sheet, No. 54, edition 2, with scale, v. 1, 1990. p. 50-60.

Ugbomoiko, U.S. The prevalence, incidence and distribution of human urinary schistosomiasis in Edo State, Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Parasitology, v. 21, p. 3-14, 2000.

Uwaezuoke, J. C.; Anosike, J. C.; Nwoke, B. E. B.; Dozie, I. N. S. Urinary Schistosomiasis in lhitte Uboma Local Government Area of Imo State, Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Parasitology, v. 28, No. 2, p. 90-94, 2007.

WHO. Guide lines for the evolution of soil transmitted helminthiasis and Schistosomiasis at community level. A guide for managers of control programmes. WHO/CTD/SIP/98.1, 1998.

WHO. Freshwater snails: intermediate hosts of schistosomiasis and food borne trematode infections. Available from: <http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/resources/vector337to356.pdf. Accessed on: Jan. 20, 2010.

WHO/TDR. Schistosomiasis, working group. 2005. Available from: <http://www.int/tdr/publication/tdrnews/newsbul/schisto.htm>. Accessed on: Dec. 2, 2007.